Dairy Business if a Cow Give Birth to Baby. There Are a Lot of Teams in Copal

Cattle bred to produce milk

"Dairy moo-cow" redirects here. For the species of woodlouse, encounter Porcellio laevis.

A Holstein moo-cow with prominent udder and less muscle than is typical of beef breeds

Dairy cattle (also called dairy cows) are cattle bred for the ability to produce large quantities of milk, from which dairy products are made. Dairy cattle by and large are of the species Bos taurus.^[1]

Historically, there was little distinction between dairy cattle and beef cattle, with the aforementioned stock frequently being used for both meat and milk production. Today, the bovine manufacture is more specialized and virtually dairy cattle have been bred to produce large volumes of milk.

Management [edit]

Cows on a dairy farm in Maryland, U.South.

Dairy cows may be found either in herds or dairy farms where dairy farmers own, manage, intendance for, and collect milk from them, or on commercial farms. Herd sizes vary around the globe depending on landholding culture and social construction. The United States has an estimated nine one thousand thousand cows in around 75,000 dairy herds, with an boilerplate herd size of 120 cows. The number of modest herds is falling quickly with the 3,100 herds with over 500 cows producing 51% of U.S. milk in 2007.^[two] The United Kingdom dairy herd overall has virtually 1.5 million cows, with about 100 head reported on an average farm.^[3] In New Zealand, the boilerplate herd has more than 375 cows, while in Australia, in that location are approximately 220 cows in the average herd.^{[4] [five]}

The Us dairy herd produced 84.ii billion kilograms (185.7 billion pounds) of milk in 2007,^[half-dozen] up from 52.9 billion kilograms (116.half-dozen billion pounds) in 1950,^[7] nonetheless there were only about nine million cows on U.S. dairy farms—about thirteen one thousand thousand fewer than in that location were in 1950.^[7] The top brood of dairy cow within Canada's national herd category is Holstein, taking up 93% of the dairy cow population, have an annual production charge per unit of 10,257 kilograms (22,613 pounds) of milk per cow that contains three.9% butter fat and 3.2% poly peptide.^[8]

Dairy farming, similar many other livestock rearing, can be carve up into intensive and all-encompassing direction systems.^[9]

Intensive systems focus towards maximum production per cow in the herd. This involves formulating their diet to provide platonic diet and housing the cows in a confinement system such as gratis stall or tie stall. These cows are housed indoors throughout their lactation and may exist put to pasture during their 60-day dry out menstruation before ideally calving again. Free stall style barns involve cattle loosely housed where they can accept free access to feed, water, and stalls only are moved to another part of the befouled to be milked multiple times a 24-hour interval. In a tie stall system, the milking units are brought to the cows during each milking. These cattle are tethered within their stalls with free access to water and feed are provided. In extensive systems, cattle are mainly outside on pasture for nigh of their lives. These cattle are generally lower in milk production and are herded multiple times daily to exist milked. The systems used greatly depends on the climate and available land of the region in which the farm is situated.^[ix]

A cow caring for her newborn calf

To maintain lactation, a dairy cow must be bred and produce calves.^[10] Depending on market place conditions, the cow may be bred with a "dairy balderdash" or a "beef bull." Female person calves (heifers) with dairy breeding may be kept as replacement cows for the dairy herd. If a replacement cow turns out to be a substandard producer of milk, she so goes to market and can be slaughtered for beef. Male person calves can either be used later as a convenance bull or sold and used for veal or beef. Dairy farmers usually begin convenance or artificially inseminating heifers around 13 months of historic period.^[11] A moo-cow'southward gestation period is approximately nine months.^[12] Newborn calves are separated from their mothers quickly, unremarkably within 3 days, equally the female parent/calf bond intensifies over time and delayed separation can crusade extreme stress on both cow and dogie.^[13]

Domestic cows can live to 13 years; however, those raised for dairy rarely live that long, as the average cow is removed from the dairy herd around historic period six and marketed for beef.^{[12] [fourteen]} In 2014, approximately nine.5% of the cattle slaughtered in the U.S. were culled dairy cows: cows that can no longer exist seen as an economic nugget to the dairy farm.^[15] These animals may be sold due to reproductive problems or common diseases of milk cows such as mastitis and lameness.^[14]

Calf [edit]

About heifers (female person calves) are kept on farm to be raised as a replacement heifer, a female that is bred and enters the production cycle. Market calves are generally sold at two weeks of age and bull calves may fetch a premium over heifers due to their size, either current or potential. Calves may be sold for veal, or for one of several types of beef production, depending on available local crops and markets. Such bull calves may be castrated if turnout onto pastures is envisaged, to brand them less aggressive. Purebred bulls from aristocracy cows may be put into progeny testing schemes to detect out whether they might get superior sires for convenance. Such animals can go extremely valuable.

Nearly dairy farms divide calves from their mothers within a day of birth to reduce transmission of illness and simplify management of milking cows. Studies accept been done assuasive calves to remain with their mothers for 1, 4, 7 or 14 days after nativity. Cows whose calves were removed longer than one day subsequently birth showed increased searching, sniffing and vocalizations. However, calves immune to remain with their mothers for longer periods showed weight gains at three times the rate of early removals too as more than searching behavior and meliorate social relationships with other calves.^{[16] [17]}

Later separation, some young dairy calves subsist on commercial milk replacer, a feed based on dried milk powder. Milk replacer is an economical alternative to feeding whole milk because information technology is cheaper, tin be bought at varying fat and protein percentages, and is typically less contaminated than whole milk when handled properly. Some farms pasteurize and feed calves milk from the cows in the herd instead of using replacer. A day-old dogie consumes around five liters of milk per day.^{[18] [ citation needed ]}

Cattle are social animals; their ancestors tended to live in matriarchal groups of mothers and offspring. The germination of "friendships" betwixt 2 cows is common and long lasting. Traditionally individual housing systems were used in calf rearing, to reduce the risk of disease spread and provide specific care. However, due to their social behaviour the grouping of offspring may exist better for the calves' overall welfare. Social interaction betwixt the calves can have a positive consequence on their growth. Information technology has been seen that calves housed in grouped penning were found to eat more feed than those in single pens,^[19] suggesting social facilitation of feeding behaviour in the calves. Play behaviour in pre-weaned dairy calves has also been suggested to assistance build social skills for later in life. It has been seen that those reared in grouped housing are more likely to become the dominant cattle in a new combination of animals.^[20] These dominant animals have a priority option of feed or lying areas and are more often than not stronger animals. For these reasons, information technology has become common practice to group or pair calves in their housing. It has get common in Canada to come across paired or grouped housing in outdoor hutches or in an indoor pack penning.^{[21] [ citation needed ]}

Bull [edit]

A bull calf with loftier genetic potential may be reared for breeding purposes. It may be kept past a dairy subcontract equally a herd bull, to provide natural breeding for the herd of cows. A balderdash may service upwards to fifty or 60 cows during a convenance season. Any more and the sperm count declines, leading to cows "returning to service" (needing to be bred again). A herd bull may but stay for one season, every bit when most bulls achieve over two years one-time their temperament becomes too unpredictable.

Balderdash calves intended for breeding commonly are bred on specialized dairy breeding farms, not product farms. These farms are the major source of stocks for artificial insemination.

Milk production levels [edit]

Dairy cattle in Mangskog, Sweden, 1911.

Dairy Cows, Collins Middle, New York, 1999

The dairy moo-cow produces big amounts of milk in its lifetime. Product levels tiptop at around 40 to 60 days after calving. Production declines steadily afterward until milking is stopped at nearly ten months. The cow is "dried off" for nigh sixty days earlier calving again. Within a 12 to fourteen-month inter-calving cycle, the milking period is about 305 days or 10 months long.^{[22] [23] [24]} Among many variables, certain breeds produce more than milk than others within a range of around half-dozen,800 to 17,000 kg (fifteen,000 to 37,500 lb) of milk per year.^{[25] [ citation needed ]}

The Holstein Friesian is the main breed of dairy cattle in Australia, and said to accept the "world'southward highest" productivity, at 10,000 litres (2,200 imp gal; 2,600 US gal) of milk per yr.^[26] The average for a unmarried dairy cow in the US in 2007 was 9,164 kg (20,204 lb) per year, excluding milk consumed by her calves,^[six] whereas the same average value for a single cow in Israel was reported in the Philippine press to be 12,240 kg (26,980 lb) in 2009.^[27] High product cows are more hard to breed at a two-twelvemonth interval. Many farms accept the view that 24 or even 36 month cycles are more appropriate for this type of cow.^{[28] [29]}

Dairy cows may continue to exist economically productive for many lactation cycles. In theory a longevity of 10 lactations is possible. The chances of problems arising which may pb to a cow being culled are high, nonetheless; the average herd life of Usa Holstein is today fewer than 3 lactations. This requires more herd replacements to be reared or purchased. Over 90% of all cows are slaughtered for four main reasons:

• Infertility – failure to conceive and reduced milk production.

Cows are at their nearly fertile between threescore and fourscore days afterward calving. Cows remaining "open up" (not with calf) later this catamenia become increasingly difficult to brood, which may be due to poor wellness. Failure to expel the afterbirth from a previous pregnancy, luteal cysts, or metritis, an infection of the uterus, are common causes of infertility.

• Mastitis – a persistent and potentially fatal mammary gland infection, leading to high somatic cell counts and loss of product.

Mastitis is recognized by a reddening and swelling of the infected quarter of the udder and the presence of whitish clots or pus in the milk. Treatment is possible with long-acting antibiotics but milk from such cows is non marketable until drug residues have left the moo-cow'southward arrangement, also called withdrawal period.

• Lameness – persistent foot infection or leg issues causing infertility and loss of production.

High feed levels of highly digestible saccharide cause acidic conditions in the cow's rumen. This leads to laminitis and subsequent lameness, leaving the cow vulnerable to other pes infections and bug which may be exacerbated by standing in faeces or water soaked areas.

• Production – some animals neglect to produce economical levels of milk to justify their feed costs.

Product below 12 to xv L (2.vi to 3.iii imp gal; iii.two to iv.0 U.s. gal) of milk per day is not economically viable.^{[30] [ failed verification ] [ citation needed ]}

Moo-cow longevity is strongly correlated with production levels.^[31] Lower production cows live longer than loftier production cows, but may be less assisting. Cows no longer wanted for milk product are sent to slaughter. Their meat is of relatively low value and is more often than not used for processed meat. Another factor affecting milk product is the stress the cow is faced with. Psychologists at the University of Leicester, United kingdom, analyzed the musical preference of milk cows and found out that music actually influences the dairy cow's lactation. Calming music can improve milk yield, probably considering it reduces stress and relaxes the cows in much the same way as it relaxes humans.

Cow condolement and its effects on milk production [edit]

Certain behaviors such as eating, ruminating, and lying downward can be related to the health of the cow and cow comfort. These behaviors can likewise be related to the productivity of the cows. Likewise, stress, disease, and discomfort negatively affect milk productivity. Therefore, it can be said that information technology is in the best involvement of the farmer to increase eating, rumination, and lying downward and subtract stress, affliction, and discomfort to achieve the maximum productivity possible.^[32] Also, estrous behaviors such equally mounting tin can be a sign of cow comfort, since if a cow is lame, nutritionally deficient, or housed in an over crowded barn, its estrous behaviors is altered.^[33]

Feeding behaviors are important for the dairy moo-cow, as feeding is how the cow ingests dry matter. Withal, the cow must ruminate to fully digest the feed and utilize the nutrients in the feed.^[34] Dairy cows with good rumen health are probable to be more than profitable than cows with poor rumen health—as a salubrious rumen aids in digestion of nutrients. An increase in the time a cow spends ruminating is associated with the increase in health and an increase in milk production.^[32] The productivity of dairy cattle is most efficient when the cattle have a full rumen.^[35] Besides, the standing activity while feeding after milking has been suggested to enhance udder wellness. The delivery of fresh feed while the cattle are away for milking stimulates the cattle to feed upon return, potentially reducing the prevalence of mastitis equally the sphincters take time to close while standing.^[36] This makes the pattern of feeding direct after existence milked an ideal method of increasing the efficiency of the herd.

Cows take a high motivation to prevarication downward.^[34] They should prevarication down for at to the lowest degree v to six hours after every meal to ruminate well.^[37] When the lactating dairy cow lies down, blood menses is increased to the mammary gland which in return results in a college milk yield.^[38] When they stand too long, cows go stressed, lose weight, get sore feet, and produce less milk.^[37]

To ensure that the dairy cows lie down as much equally needed, the stalls must be comfortable.^[37] A stall should have a rubber mat and bedding, and be big enough for the cow to lie down and get up comfortably. Signs that the stalls may not be comfortable enough for the cows are the cows are continuing, either ruminating or not, instead of lying downwardly, or perching, which is when the moo-cow has its front end in the stall and their back end out of the stall.^[39] Dried manure, almond shells, straw, sand, or waterbeds are used for moo-cow bedding.^[37]

There are two types of housing systems in dairy production, free style housing and necktie stall. Free style housing is where the cow is gratuitous to walk around and collaborate with its surround and other members of the herd. Tie stall housing is when the moo-cow is chained to a stantion stall with the milking units and feed coming to them.^[40]

By-products and processing [edit]

Pasteurization is the procedure of heating milk to a high enough temperature for a brusk period of fourth dimension to kill the microbes in the milk and increase keep fourth dimension and decrease spoilage time. By killing the microbes, decreasing the transmission of infection, and elimination of enzymes the quality of the milk and the shelf life increases. Pasteurization is either completed at 63 °C (145 °F) for thirty minutes or a flash pasteurization is completed for 15 seconds at 72 °C (162 °F).^[41] Past-products of milk include butterfat, cream, curds, and whey. Butterfat is the main lipid in milk. The cream contains eighteen–40% butterfat. The manufacture can exist divided into 2 market territories; fluid milk and industrialized milk such as yogurt, cheeses, and water ice foam.^[42]

Whey poly peptide makes up about 20% of milk'southward protein limerick and is separated from the casein (80% of milk'south protein make upward) during the process of curdling cheese. This protein is normally used in protein confined, beverages and full-bodied powder, due to its high quality amino acid profile. Information technology contains levels of both essential amino acids besides every bit branched that are in a higher place those of soy, meat, and wheat.^[43] "Diafiltered" milk is a process of ultrafiltration of the fluid milk to split up lactose and h2o from the casein and whey proteins. This procedure allows for more efficiency in cheese making and gives the potential to produce low-carb dairy products.^[44]

Reproduction [edit]

Since the 1950s, artificial insemination (AI) is used at almost dairy farms; these farms may keep no bull. Artificial insemination uses estrus synchronization to signal when the cow is going through ovulation and is susceptible to fertilization. Advantages of using AI include its depression toll and ease compared to maintaining a bull, ability to select from a big number of bulls, elimination of diseases in the dairy industry, improved genetics and improved animal welfare.^{[45] [ citation needed ]} Rather than a big bull jumping on a smaller heifer or weaker cow, AI allows the farmer to complete the breeding procedure within 5 minutes with minimum stress placed on the individual female's trunk.^{[46] [ commendation needed ]}

Dairy cattle are polyestrous, meaning they cycle continuously throughout the yr. They tend to be on a 21 mean solar day heat bicycle. Yet for management purposes, some operations use synthetic hormones to synchronize their cows or heifers to accept them breed and calve at the ideal times. These hormones are short term and only used when necessary. For example, 1 common protocol for synchronization involves an injection of GnRH (gonadotrophin releasing hormone). which increases the levels of follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone in the body. So, seven days later prostaglandin F2-alpha is injected, followed by some other GnRH injection 48 hours later. This protocol causes the animate being to ovulate 24 hours later on.^[47]

Estrus is often called standing heat in cattle and refers to the time in their cycle where the female person is receptive towards the male. Estrus behaviour tin can be detected by an experienced stockman. These behaviours can include continuing to be mounted, mounting other cows, restlessness, decreased milk production, and decreased feed intake.^[48]

More than recently, embryo transfer has been used to enable the multiplication of progeny from elite cows. Such cows are given hormone treatments to produce multiple embryos. These are then 'flushed' from the moo-cow's uterus. seven–12 embryos are consequently removed from these donor cows and transferred into other cows who serve as surrogate mothers. This results in between three and six calves instead of the normal unmarried or (rarely) twins.

Hormone use [edit]

Farmers in some countries sometimes administer hormone treatments to dairy cows to increase milk production and reproduction.

Most 17% of dairy cows in the United States are injected with Bovine somatotropin, also chosen recombinant bovine somatotropin (rBST), recombinant bovine growth hormone (rBGH), or artificial growth hormone.^[49] The use of this hormone increases milk production by 11%–25%. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has ruled that rBST is harmless to people. The apply of rBST is banned in Canada, parts of the European Union, as well equally Australia and New Zealand.

In the United States the Pasteurized Milk Ordinance requires a milk sample is taken from every subcontract and from every load of milk delivered to a processing constitute.^[50] These samples are and so tested for antibiotic and whatever milk testing positive is discarded and farm identified. Traceback to the dairy is undertaken by the FDA with further consequences including the possibility revocation of ability to sell milk.^[51]

Diet [edit]

Dairy cattle at feeding fourth dimension

Diet plays an important role in keeping cattle healthy and strong. Implementing an adequate diet plan tin can likewise better milk production and reproductive operation. Nutrient requirements may not exist the same depending on the animal'due south age and stage of production. Diets are formulated to meet the dairy cow's energy and amino acid requirements for lactation, growth, and/or reproduction.^[52]

Forages, which refer peculiarly to anything grown in the field such as hay, harbinger, corn silage, or grass silage, are the most common type of feed used. The base of most lactating dairy cattle diets is high quality fodder. Cereal grains, equally the main contributors of starch to diets, are important in helping to come across the energy needs of dairy cattle. Barley is an excellent source of counterbalanced amounts of protein, energy, and fiber.^[53]

Ensuring acceptable trunk fat reserves is essential for cattle to produce milk and also to keep reproductive efficiency. However, if cattle get excessively fatty or too thin, they run the risk of developing metabolic bug and may take issues with calving.^[54] Scientists have establish that a multifariousness of fat supplements can benefit formulation rates of lactating dairy cows. Some of these different fats include oleic acids, found in canola oil, fauna tallow, and yellow grease; palmitic acid found in granular fats and dry fats; and linolenic acids which are found in cottonseed, safflower, sunflower, and soybean.^[55]

Using by-products is one mode of reducing the normally high feed costs. However, lack of cognition of their nutritional and economic value limits their use. Although the reduction of costs may be significant, they have to exist used carefully because creature may have negative reactions to radical changes in feeds, (e.g. fog fever). Such a modify must and then be made slowly and with the proper follow upward.^[56]

Breeds [edit]

According to the Purebred Dairy Cattle Clan, PDCA, there are seven major dairy breeds in the United States. These are: Holstein, Dark-brown Swiss, Guernsey, Ayrshire, Jersey, Red and White, and Milking Shorthorn.^[57]

Holstein cows originate from the Netherlands and take singled-out black and white or more rarely scarlet and white markings. Holstein cows are the biggest of all dairy breeds. A full mature Holstein cow commonly weighs effectually 700 kilograms (one,500 lb) and is 147 centimetres (58 in) alpine at the shoulder. They are known for their outstanding milk production among the main breeds of dairy cattle. An boilerplate Holstein cow produces around x,000 kilograms (23,000 lb) of milk each lactation. Of the nine meg dairy cows in the U.S., approximately ninety% of them are of the Holstein descent.^[58] The acme brood of dairy moo-cow within Canada's national herd category is Holstein, taking up 93% of the dairy cow population, have a production charge per unit of 10,257 kilograms (22,613 lb) of milk per moo-cow that contains 3.9% butter fat and 3.2% protein^[8]

Chocolate-brown Swiss cows are widely accepted as the oldest dairy cattle breed, originally coming from a office of northeastern Switzerland. Some experts think that the modern Brown Swiss skeleton is similar to one found that looks to be from effectually the twelvemonth 4000 BC Likewise, in that location is evidence that monks started breeding these cows about yard years agone.^[59]

The Ayrshire breed first originated in the County of Ayr in Scotland. It became regarded equally a well established breed in 1812. The different breeds that were crossed to form the Ayrshire are not exactly known. All the same, there is prove that several breeds were crossed with the native cattle to create the breed.^[60]

Guernsey cows originated but off the declension of France on the small Island of Guernsey. The brood was first known every bit a separate brood effectually 1700. Guernseys are known for their ability to produce very high quality milk from grass. Also, the term "Aureate Guernsey" is very common as Guernsey cattle produce rich, yellow milk rather than the standard white milk other moo-cow breeds produce.^[61]

The Bailiwick of jersey breed of dairy cow originated on a small island located off the coast of French republic chosen Bailiwick of jersey.^[62] Despite beingness i of the oldest breeds of dairy cattle they now only occupy 4% of the Canadian National Herd.^[63] Purebred Bailiwick of jersey cows, co-ordinate to available data, have been in the UK area since virtually the yr 1741. When they were first bred in this area, they were not known as Jerseys, merely rather as the related Alderneys. The menstruation betwixt 1860 and around 1914 was a popular time for Jerseys. In this time span, many countries other than the United States started importing this breed, including Canada, South Africa, and New Zealand, amongst others.^[64]

Amongst the smallest of the dairy breeds, the boilerplate Jersey cow matures at approximately 410 kilograms (900 lb), with a typical weight range between 360 and 540 kilograms (800–one,200 lb). According to North Dakota Land Academy, the fatty content of the Jersey cow'due south milk is four.nine percentage. It is also the highest in protein, at 3.8 percent.^[65] This high fat content means the milk is often used for making ice cream and cheeses. According to the American Jersey Cattle Clan, Jerseys are found on 20 percent of all US dairy farms and are the chief breed in about iv percent of dairies.^{[66] [ citation needed ]}

Amongst the Bos indicus, the most pop dairy brood in the globe is Sahiwal of the Indian subcontinent. It does non give equally much milk as the Taurine breeds, just it is by far the most suitable breed for warmer climates. Australian Friesian Sahiwal and Australian Milking Zebu take been developed in Australia using Sahiwal genetics. Gir, another of the Bos indicus breeds, has been improved in Brazil for its milk product and is widely used at that place for dairy.

Brute welfare [edit]

Animal welfare refers to both the physical and mental land of an animate being, and how it is coping with its situation. An beast is considered in a adept state of welfare if it is able to express its innate behaviour, comfy, healthy, prophylactic, well nourished, and is non suffering from negative states such as distress, fear and hurting. Good animal welfare requires illness prevention and veterinary handling, appropriate shelter, direction, nutrition, and humane treatment. If the animal is slaughtered then it is no longer "adept animal welfare".^[67] Information technology is the man responsibility of the animals' wellbeing in all husbandry and direction practices including humane euthanasia.

Proper fauna handling, or stockmanship, is crucial to dairy animals' welfare every bit well as the safety of their handlers. Improper handling techniques can stress cattle leading to impaired production and health, such as increased slipping injuries. Additionally, the majority of nonfatal worker injuries on a dairy farm are from interactions with cattle. Dairy animals are handled on a daily basis for a wide variety of purposes including wellness-related management practices and movement from freestalls to the milking parlor. Due to the prevalence of homo-beast interactions on dairy farms, researchers, veterinarians, and farmers akin take focused on furthering our understanding of stockmanship and educating agronomics workers. Stockmanship is a complex concept that involves the timing, positioning, speed, direction of motility, and sounds and touch of the handler.^{[68] [ commendation needed ]}

A recent survey of Minnesota dairy farms revealed that 42.6% of workers learned stockmanship techniques from family members, and 29.9% had participated in stockmanship training. Withal, equally the growing U.South. dairy industry increasingly relies on an immigrant workforce, stockmanship training and education resources become more than pertinent. Clearly communicating and managing a large culturally diverse workforce brings new challenges such as linguistic communication barriers and time limitations.^[69] Organizations similar the Upper Midwest Agriculture Safety and Health Center offer resource such as bilingual training videos, fact sheets, and informational posters for dairy worker training. Additionally the Beef Quality Assurance Program offer seminars, live demonstrations, and online resources for stockmanship training.^{[70] [ citation needed ]}

For cows to reach high performance in milk yields and reproduction, they must be in great condition and comfortable in the system. Once an individual'due south welfare is reduced, so does her efficiency and production. This creates more cost and time on the operation, therefore most farmers strive to create a healthy, aseptic, atmosphere for their cattle. As well as provide quality nutrition that continue the cows yield high.^[71]

The production of milk requires that the cow be in lactation, which is a consequence of the cow having given nascency to a calf. The cycle of insemination, pregnancy, parturition, and lactation is followed by a "dry" period of about two months before calving, which allows udder tissue to regenerate. A dry out period that falls outside this time frames tin issue in decreased milk production in subsequent lactation.^[72] Dairy operations therefore include both the production of milk and the production of calves. Bull calves are either castrated and raised equally steers for beefiness production or used for veal.

The practice of dairy production has been criticized by fauna rights proponents. Some of the ethical reasons regarding dairy production cited include how often the dairy cattle are impregnated, the separation of calves from their mothers, the fact that dairy cows are considered "spent" and culled at a relatively young historic period, as well as environmental concerns regarding any cattle product.^[73]

See also [edit]

• Listing of Dairy cattle breeds
• Estrous synchronization
• Fog fever
• Dairy cattle showmanship
• Meat industry

References [edit]

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